| | | Marine Life

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Marine Life holds the secrets to the beginnings of man and the universe around us. The world is made up of 71 percent water, and we have yet to uncover the many secrets of the deep ocean. It is said that humans originated from the bacteria that floated in the waters for billions of years, and we are the end result.

This section will describe the many fascinating fundamentals of Marine life and its impact on the world around us.

1 CORAL REEFS
2 The Ocean’s Top 10 Coral Reef Hotspots
3 THE LOW-TECH ACTION GROUP FOR CORAL REEF RESTORATION
4 Coral Reefs of San Andres Archipelago
5 Marine Protected Areas

CORAL REEFS

The Ocean's Top 10 Coral Reef Hotspots

Note that the WESTERN CARIBBEAN is listed among the 10 global hotspots, in spite of the significantly reduced species diversity in the Caribbean

Bruce Potter

From: OBF RESEARCH <research@...> Subject: ML: The Ocean's Top 10 Coral Reef Hotspots To: *L Marinelife <marinelife@...> Importance: Normal X-Priority: 3 (Normal) Sender: owner-marinelife@... Reply-To: OBF RESEARCH <research@...> COSMIVERSE - http://www.cosmiverse.com 15.02.02 Cosmiverse Staff Writer / Source: Conservation International

The Ocean’s Top 10 Coral Reef Hotspots

With 25 percent of the world's reefs already destroyed or badly damaged, a group of scientists has listed the world's 10 most important coral reef areas for the first time. In addition, the group said 58 percent of reefs in the world are reported to be threatened by human activities.

Their findings were published in Science magazine and will be reported to the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Boston.

The 10 hotspots, according to the degree of threat they face, are :

the Philippines; Gulf of Guinea; Sunda islands (Indonesia); southern Mascarene islands (near Madagascar); eastern South Africa; northern Indian ocean; southern Japan, Taiwan and southern China; Cape Verde islands; western Caribbean; and the Red sea and Gulf of Aden. Each is home to a wide range of endemic species (those with a restricted range). The areas were identified by mapping the geographic ranges of 1,700 species of reef fish, 804 corals, 662 snails and 69 lobster species. They then compared these with known threats to coral reefs from human impacts. The 10 areas contain 24 percent of the world's reefs, but 34 percent of endemic species.

Threats include farming, deforestation and development, which can leave the reefs struggling against sediments, nutrients and other pollution. Intensive fishing, sometimes with dynamite and poison, is also devastating.

The authors wrote: "Marine species have long been considered resilient to extinction because of their large geographic range sizes. Widespread reef degradation could lead to a gathering wave of extinctions. Many centers of endemism are deeply at risk and can be considered analogous to terrestrial biodiversity hotspots. Without rapid conservation action, species will be lost."

The scientists say concentrating conservation on the hotspots could be highly effective, but it should extend to reef "wilderness" areas "and must include efforts to mitigate climate change".

Lead author of the report, Dr. Callum Roberts, of the University of York, UK, told the BBC, "We know that unless we take action right away, marine species will start going extinct."

Roberts said marine reserves out of bounds to fishing were needed immediately. They would be economically beneficial as well as effective, he said. The research was funded by Conservation International, and Unep-WCMC (the United Nations Environment Program World Conservation Monitoring Center) provided data.

Island Resources, the Virgin Islands and Washington for fastest mail service: 1718 "P" St NW # T-4, Washington, DC 20036 202/265-9712 fax 202/232-0748; E-mail: <bpotter@...> promote Island Resources---Send Your $35 Membership to the DC Office publishers of 25 e-mail mailing lists for Caribbean Environmentalists

http://www.miamiherald.com/news/breaking_news/v-print/story/331446.html Miami Herald Posted on Tue, Dec. 04, 2007

Keys' coral reef faces more trouble

BY MARC CAPUTO

Boat run-agrounds are up nearly 62 percent. Fragile coral species haven't recovered from serious diseases. And polluting nutrients are choking out some sea grasses.

The 10th annual status report of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary shows that the aquatic life is in trouble in the world's third-largest barrier coral reef -- despite a decade of protection plans and regulations designed to save it.

And though the report indicates that fish populations are rebounding in a no-fishing zone and the reef's health isn't as severely declining as in the past, things could get far worse because of something no regulation can stop right now: global warming.

Warmer and warmer waters make it tougher and tougher for the tiny clustering coral animals to live.

"Corals are the canary, the canary in the coal mine. And they have shown us for some time that we have elevated sea surface temperatures," Billy Causey, the director of marine sanctuaries in the Southeast, told Gov. Charlie Crist and the Cabinet before they voted to accept the sanctuary plan Tuesday.

"We started seeing changes to the coral reef community in the early 80s as a result of climate change, Causey said. ``We've seen an intensification."

The big die-offs took place in the mid and late 90s when coral populations world-wide declined due to what's called "bleaching," which is linked to warmer-than-usual temperatures and occurs when the coral animals expel the colorful algae that live inside them.

Causey noted that some of the inshore reefs seem "more resilient" to climate change but the deeper reefs seem more troubled by temperature changes.

Another hidden killer that the report addresses is the level of the nutrient nitrogen, which fosters algae growth that chokes out corals as well as sea grass. The report was silent on its source, though theories have long abounded, from leaky septic and sewer systems, which are being cleaned up, to Everglades restoration, which some say flushes more farm-water runoff into Florida Bay.

Still, the report says corals aren't dying at the rates they did in the '80s and '90s, the hurricanes of 2004-2005 somehow didn't damage them badly and the sanctuary has led cutting-edge research to spawn corals. The sanctuary and state in 2006 also removed 436 derelict vessels that floated around after the back-to-back hurricane seasons, but it couldn't stop 487 boats from running aground -- up from 301.

Crist noted to a state environmental regulator if more navigation signs would help not just the corals, but avid boaters like himself.

THE LOW-TECH ACTION GROUP FOR CORAL REEF RESTORATION

Purpose/Aim:

To develop and disseminate inexpensive, low-tech, coral reef restoration and coral cover enhancement methods appropriate for use in "third world" nations and for use by rural fishing communities.

Rationale: Some 70% of the planet's coral reefs are owned and controlled by rural fishing communities, not by national or state governments. These rural fishing communities are primary stewards of the planet's coral reef biodiversity, and are a chief force of destruction as well. The future of coral reefs is very much in the hands of coastal village communities, but this fact is under-recognized by researchers and the international community at present.

Most coral reef restoration research focuses on repairing damage due to ship groundings, or attempts to enhance the recruitment of coral larvae. While important in situations of the developed world, these methods do not address the needs of most of the planet's coral reefs due to their high-tech and expensive nature.

Many fishing communities are already acutely aware that there is severe problem with declining coral reef resources, being directly impacted by overfishing and habitat destruction. Many of these communities are becoming increasingly receptive to understanding the reasons for fisheries demise/coral reef decline. In areas where destructive fishing methods have been discontinued, the application of low-tech methods to restore coral reefs within traditional fishing areas becomes possible.

Founding members:

Ulf Lindahl, Sweden (working in Tanzania and the Indian Ocean) ulindahl@... Helen Fox, USA (working in Indonesia) hfox@... Austin Bowden-Kerby (working in Fiji, S. Pacific and Caribbean) bowdenkerby@...

Those of similar research focus and concern, please join us! Please direct inquires to each of the above members.

Ulf Lindahl Kristineberg Marine Research Station 450 34 Fiskebackskil Sweden Tel. +46 523 18518 Fax +46 523 18502

Bruce Potter IRF Island Resources Foundation 27 Years of Environmental Planning for Development

http://www.irf.org

Island Resources Foundation |+|Island Resources Foundation Headquarters & Library |+|Contributions and Publications 6292 Estate Nazareth No. 100 |+|1718 "P" Street NW, Suite T-4 St. Thomas, VI 00802-1104 |+|Washington, DC 20036 Phone 202/265-9712 fax 779-2022 |+|fax 232-0748

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== Great Barrier Reef review- ship safety & pollution prevention measures ==

This excerpt from an Australian report reviews many of the important issues about protecting reefs that we TOO SELDOM SEE in the Caribbean. I have been especially dismayed by the number of groundings reported in recent years in the Western Caribbean by cruise ships (and one recently in NEVIS), which seem to derive directly from POOR PILOTAGE, CHARTS and BOUYAGE.

These are solvable technical problems of NO GREAT COMPLEXITY, and I would hope we didn't have to wait for another disaster to address them in the Caribbean. I bet that many of the recommendations from the Australian study can, and should be applied in the Caribbean.

best wishes

bruce potter

Improvement of ship safety and marine pollution prevention measures for the Great Barrier Reef - Review Report

The recommendations of this review by Australian authorities cross over many aspects of the activities of the oil-spill-responders group from improved legislative powers, enforcement, mapping & GIS, decision support systems, response planning, education, communication & radar systems, safe havens, salvage, port/state control, marine reserve management, crew training, use of single hull oil tankers and maritime chemical spills.

The Great Barrier Reef is internationally recognised as a unique marine environment, similarly is an important international shipping lane and contains significant fishing grounds. The protection of its outstanding natural qualities was enhanced with the establishment of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in 1975 as the worlds' largest marine park over 2,300 kilometers long. It was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1981, and it was designated by the IMO as one of the world's first Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas in 1990.

In addition to its environmental and cultural significance, the Great Barrier Reef has important economic significance. It supports a billion dollar sector of the tourism industry and a $250 million sector of the fishing industry. In total the Great Barrier Reef is estimated to contribute around $2 billion per annum to the Queensland economy.

In November 2000, the Minister for Transport and Regional Services commissioned a review of ship safety and pollution prevention measures in the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait. The review was tasked to develop strategies to address: - Extension of the compulsory pilotage area in the Reef; - Advancing the introduction of technological developments to track and monitor shipping operations; - Enhancing ship routeing, traffic management and emergency response arrangements; - Constraining certain ship types from operating in or near the Reef; and - Improving legislative powers of intervention and enforcement, heightening penalties and ordering restitution.

The report has been completed and it available in full at: http://www.amsa.gov.au/sd/gbrreview/report.htm

Recommendation 1 The review recommends establishment of an ongoing Great Barrier Reef Shipping Management Group, including executive representation from AMSA, the Commonwealth Department of Transport and Regional Services, Queensland Transport and GBRMPA, to carry forward the review's recommendations and to ensure ongoing clarification of roles and responsibilities of all relevant agencies involved with shipping operations in the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait.

Recommendation 2 The review recommends that the GBR Shipping Management Group prepare a Shipping Management Plan as part of a three year rolling program of management for shipping in the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait.

Recommendation 3 The review recommends that the Great Barrier Reef Shipping Management Group regularly update progress on the review initiatives and provide an annual report to their respective Ministers.

Recommendation 4 The review recommends the Great Barrier Reef Shipping Management Group develop a study of the economic, environmental and social impacts of shipping, including indigenous considerations, in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and Torres Strait, to assist with the long-term management of the industry within the region.

Recommendation 5 The review recommends improved data sharing arrangements between relevant agencies and with island communities in Torres Strait on traffic monitoring and regular dissemination of information to local communities.

Recommendation 6 The review recommends that Australia should immediately initiate the process for seeking endorsement by the IMO for upgrading the current recommended pilotage area in the Torres Strait to compulsory pilotage and an extension of the GBR Particularly Sensitive Sea Area to encompass the Torres Strait to support introduction of compulsory pilotage.

Recommendation 7 In the interim, the review recommends a concerted campaign be conducted by AMSA and Queensland Transport to reinforce the existing recommended pilotage regime for all applicable ships transiting the Torres Strait. This could include notes on charts, reinforcement in Reef Guide, an international education campaign and advice by the Ship Reporting System to all ships operating in the region.

Recommendation 8 The review recommends that consideration be given to raising at the Australian Transport Council the proposal that any vessel transiting the Torres Strait and arriving at an Australian port will not be given access at that port unless a pilot was used throughout the passage through the Torres Strait.

Recommendation 9 The review recommends the promulgation of a recommended pilotage regime through IMO for the inner route and Palm and Grafton Passages.

Recommendation 10 The Review recommends that ships transiting the inner route of the GBR north of Cairns should be required to embark or disembark pilots at a new pilot boarding ground off Mourilyan.

Recommendation 11 The review recommends that shipping be further discouraged from transiting the Whitsunday Islands region by removing "preferred" routes for shipping through the area from charts.

Recommendation 12 This review recommends, as an intermediate step, the review of levies should also explore economic options to encourage greater usage of pilots.

Recommendation 13 The review recommends that an expert task force comprising AMSA, Queensland Transport, GBRMPA, training providers and pilot representatives undertake a reassessment of recruitment and licensing practices for coastal pilots. The task force should examine the training and qualification system for coastal pilots, including on the job specialised training and the potential for tiered levels of pilot licensing.

Recommendation 14 The review recommends that the proposed reassessment of recruitment and licensing of pilots should encompass the criteria for issuing pilot exemptions.

Recommendation 15 The review recommends that pilotage service providers continue to be expressly included in the regulatory framework covering coastal pilotage services. The review endorses the safety systems approach promulgated in the Great Barrier Reef Safety Management Code, which encompasses both pilots and pilotage service providers.

Recommendation 16 The review recommends that AMSA, GBRMPA and Queensland Transport undertake extensive promulgation of pilotage requirements to promote awareness of both compulsory and recommended pilotage zones.

Recommendation 17 The review recommends AMSA and Queensland Transport prepare by March 2002 an AIS implementation plan for the Great Barrier Reef for shipping participating in the Ship Reporting System. The plan should address the capacity for introducing a vessel management system within the Great Barrier Reef. A mid term review should be conducted in 2003- 04 to take account of uptake of AIS by international shipping and technological advances.

Recommendation 18 The review recommends that the use of Inmarsat C be required for all vessels subject to mandatory reporting requirements, to complement other technologies in providing near real time positions for vessels throughout the Ship Reporting System. The voluntary use of Inmarsat C should be encouraged for all other vessels.

Recommendation 19 The review recommends that a reassessment of the role of REEFCENTRE should examine: - the upgrading of Ship Reporting System (SRS) monitoring capacity, with the potential for inclusion of a coastal Vessel Traffic Service providing a Navigational Assistance Service, - reporting points for the SRS, - operation of the alert system, - restricted areas, and - the impact of the planned adoption of AIS technology.

Recommendation 20 The review recommends improving radar coverage in the Torres Strait to enhance overall monitoring of shipping transiting this region, in consultation with indigenous communities.

Recommendation 21 The review recommends that ENC/ECDIS development be given the highest priority to complete the ENC for the Prince of Wales Channel, the Great North East Channel and the Inner Route of the Great Barrier Reef within a timeframe to be specified by the ShipManagement Plan. This could involve either improving resources for the Hydrographic Office or the Hydrographic Office engaging commercial contractors to expedite the current rate of production.

Recommendation 22 The review recommends an extensive education and awareness campaign be commissioned to promote the benefits and uptake of ECDIS onboard ships.

Recommendation 23 The review recommends that work in assessing and developing the Fairway Channel should be accelerated, using the Australian Maritime College simulator, to confirm the advantages of adopting the Fairway Channel, and to determine the best route through the channel and the navigation aid configuration required to adequately mark that route.

Recommendation 24 The review recommends changing recommended tracks on charts to a two way route where traffic separation is suitable.

Recommendation 25 The review recommends declaration and widespread promulgation of Marine Environment High Risk Areas (MEHRA) for inclusion in ECDIS and through Reef Guide and for passage planning procedures.

Recommendation 26 The review recommends that AMSA, GBRMPA and Queensland Transport should conduct an international campaign to promote ship safety and environmental awareness in the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait. This should include: - providing a copy of the Reef Guide booklet to every ship transiting the region; - requesting the International Chamber of Shipping Guide environment page to include a section on the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait; and - other publicity in relevant international publications.

Recommendation 27 The review recommends that electronic charts should identify and mark areas of high fishing activity and that the REEFCENTRE give warnings to ships entering such areas.

Recommendation 28 The review recommends that AMSA, GBRMPA and Queensland Transport should reassess emergency response measures in the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait. This should include the assessment of necessary salvage capacity and its operational location.

Recommendation 29 The review recommends the regular updating and extension of the existing Queensland Guidelines for the Provision of Safe Haven for Disabled or Damaged Vessels at Sea, in line with the latest developments in the IMO.

Recommendation 30 The review recommends that the National Plan for Responding to Pollution of the Sea by Oil and Other Hazardous and Noxious Substances (NatPlan) reassessment of ChemPlan currently being pursued should be extended to include assessment of the risk of a chemical spill within the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait.

Recommendation 31 The review recommends that it is inappropriate and impractical to impose constraints on certain ship or cargo types using the Inner Route.

Recommendation 32 The review recommends that Queensland Transport obtain forecast shipping schedules from all pilot companies for provision to REEFCENTRE.

Recommendation 33 The review recommends that submission of passage plans and prior notice of entry into the GBR region be introduced to enhance the Ship Traffic Information provided by REEFCENTRE.

Recommendation 34 The review recommends evaluation of all available data using AMSA's Ship Inspection Decision Support System to identify high risk ships operating in the Great Barrier Reef and to target port State control inspections if these ships call at Australian ports.

Recommendation 35 The review recommends strategies be developed to improve tracking and monitoring, and to notify shipping that access to ports will be denied for ships with particularly serious port State control records.

Recommendation 36 The review recommends that the Australian Transport Safety Bureau establish a confidential marine incident reporting system and develop mechanisms to relay relevant information to AMSA, REEFCENTRE, Queensland Transport and GBRMPA.

Recommendation 37 The review recommends support for IMO action in relation to phasing out single-hulled tankers and adopting interim measures to allow port States to deny entry to single-hulled tankers and for measures to improve protection against bunker fuel spills.

Recommendation 38 The review recommends that legal advice should be sought from the Office of International Law in the Attorney-General's Department as to whether there is scope for Australia to exercise sovereign powers over the Prince of Wales Channel, given that it passes between Australian territory and falls within Australian internal waters.

Recommendation 39 The review recommends, as part of the proposed Shipping Management Plan, computerised jurisdictional maps should be compiled of the entire Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait area to enhance efficiency and certainty during responses to marine incidents.

Recommendation 40 The review recommends that, as part of the development of a Shipping Management Plan, the main regulatory agencies should examine the existing regulatory regime to rationalise and simplify the complex jurisdictional and legislative arrangements for regulating shipping in the Great Barrier Reef region.

Recommendation 41 The review recommends that, as part of the proposed Shipping Management Plan, the main regulatory agencies should bring forward coordinated proposals to improve powers of intervention, restitution and recovery of costs, offences and penalties.

Trevor Gilbert Marine Pollution Adviser - COMSEC Pacific Ocean Pollution Prevention Programme -PACPOL SPREP (South Pacific Regional Environment Programme) PO Box 240, Apia, SAMOA Tel: 685 21929 Fax: 685 20231 MAILTO: trevorg@... website: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/oil-spill-responders

Check the Island Resources Web Site at http://www.irf.org/ >

Coral Reefs of San Andres Archipelago

We include both the South-Central Caribbean and the Central American Chapters from STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF THE WORLD: 1998, edited by Clive Wilkinson of the Australian Institute of Marine Sciences. Maybe updating of the little mention of the San Andres Archipelago would be a nice objective for the San Andres Workshop to be held in San Andres, August 23rd to 30th. bp]

The authors for this review were: Jeremy Woodley, University of the West Indies, Jamaica; Kalli De Meyer, Bonaire Marine Park; Phillippe Bush and Gina Ebanks-Petrie, Department of the Environment, Grand Cayman; Jaime Garzon-Ferreira, INVEMAR, Colombia; Eduardo Klein, Universidad de Simon Bolivar, Venezuela; Leendert Pors, Ecological Institute, Curacao; and Cornelius Wilson, Ministry of Transport, Communication and Utilities, Aruba.

Status of coral reefs of the world:

Status of coral reefs in the south-central Caribbean

Jeremy Woodley, Kalli De Meyer, Philippe Bush, Gina Ebanks-Petrie, Jaime Garzon-Ferreira, Eduardo Klein, Leendert Pors and Cornelius Wilson

Abstract

Caribbean corals have suffered from bleaching, diseases, and Diadema die-off. Reefs on narrow shelves adjacent to large human populations with many fishers (Colombia, Curacao, Jamaica, Venezuela) suffer from runoff of sediment and pollutants, over-fishing, and now show signs of degradation (fewer fish, more algae, less coral cover). Where shelves or banks are wide, or far from human populations, reefs are less disturbed. Islands with fewer people and little fishing pressure (Bonaire, Cayman) have good reefs. Here, diving tourism is economically important, and there is greater awareness of reef conservation. Cayman has the best-developed national coastal area management plan, while most other countries have marine protected areas. These are stimulating improved coastal management, aided by increasing numbers of nongovernmental organisations (NGOs).

Introduction

Coral reefs have been degraded in all the six countries: Aruba; Netherlands Antilles (Bonaire and Curacao); Cayman; Jamaica; and reefs off the mainland of South America; Colombia; and Venezuela. Reefs on Bonaire and Cayman are in the best condition, while those showing the greatest damage are on the north coast of Jamaica, and at Moroccoy, Venezuela. Both natural and human impacts are implicated, often compounding each other, in all countries. Hurricanes make the largest natural impacts on coral reefs. Their effects are greater in the northern Caribbean and are relatively rare off the South American mainland. They are often triggers for other major changes, because chronic human disturbances have altered the natural conditions and prevented normal recovery. Diseases are important (apparently natural) factors. Acropora corals, the dominant reef-builders in the Caribbean, have suffered high mortality from white-band disease. The large populations of the grazing sea-urchin, Diadema antillarum, have not recovered from the mass mortality in 1983, which resulted in massive increases in the amount of large algae in many areas. Human impacts have greatly increased as populations and development expanded, and have resulted in more sediment and nutrient pollution, and over-fishing. The impacts are greatest near cities, towns, and villages, and on reefs on narrow shelves near large populations (like north Jamaica). Where shelf and reef areas are larger (south coast of Jamaica, Caymans), reef fish are larger and more abundant, and help prevent algal overgrowth.

Status of coral reefs

Aruba

Aruba is a small island (32 km by 10 km) off Venezuela, with considerable tourism development based on the reefs, particularly for SCUBA divers. However, from 1980 to 1982, white-band disease killed over 90% of the staghorn corals (Acropora cervicornis) in shallow waters, and the disease also decreased the coral's ability to regenerate after physical damage. Like other parts of the Caribbean, the black-spined sea-urchin, Diadema antillarum, almost died off in 1983. Reefs on the southern and western coasts have been severely degraded by recreational uses, and by various kinds of pollution, including pollution from an oil refinery, which closed in 1985 but re-opened in 1992. Corals, reef fish, and other organisms have been legally protected since 1980, effectively banning spearfishing and the collection of corals. Legislation exists to establish protected areas; but no protected areas have been created, although this is considered a priority. Elements in the private sector have become active in protection of the reefs, with initiatives such as installing mooring buoys at major diving sites, and an annual reef-care clean-up programme.

Grand Cayman

Grand Cayman, Little Cayman, and Cayman Brac, are small, low islands (33 km by 10 km, 14 km by 3 km and 17 km by 3 km, respectively) to the southwest of Cuba. The islands have well-developed fringing reefs on the narrow shelves around them, which end as steep walls dropping to great depths. The Cayman Islands have grown phenomenally in the last 30 years, from an undeveloped country, to a thriving financial centre and popular tourist destination. The resident population has grown from 8500 to 30,000, but 600,000 people visit on cruise ships, and another 280,000 tourists, including many divers, come each year. Seafood is really popular, and there are considerable pressures on stocks of conch, lobster, and fish.

Hurricanes can cause major impacts, such as caused by Gilbert in 1988. As in the rest of the Caribbean, Diadema antillarum died out in 1983, but this did not result in an algal bloom, because grazing fish were still abundant. Now the Diadema seem to be coming back in areas on west Grand Cayman. There was large-scale bleaching of corals in 1987, and even worse bleaching in 1995-1996 and 1997-1998. White-band disease has been seen, but the staghorn (Acropora) coral species are still common, although impacted by storms. The deeper reefs off George Town have been destroyed by the continual anchoring of cruise ships, and nearby shallow reefs have been damaged by the resulting sedimentation. Another major source of stress on the reefs is from the thousands of divers.

The condition of most Cayman reefs is relatively good, but veteran divers say they are deteriorating. The government is starting monitoring, in addition to the two CARICOMP sites, and has banned the taking of any marine life using SCUBA. Fishing of conch, lobster, and turtle is controlled, and the discharge of harmful effluent and raw sewage is banned. There is now concern about polluted groundwater seeping out into coastal waters, because much sewage is disposed of by deep well injection. Reef fish are still abundant, although the increasing use of large Antillean traps with small mesh wire is causing concern. The government has established Marine Park Zones (only line fishing from the shore or out in deep water); Replenishment Zones (no spearfishing, no collecting of conch or lobster, and no fishtraps); and an Environmental Zone (no hunting, fishing, swimming, or anchoring). These zones include about 34% of coastal waters, and are enforced by four full-time Marine Enforcement Officers, backed up by the possibility of heavy fines.

Colombia

The Caribbean coast of Colombia has a 40 km wide continental shelf, which is strongly influenced by freshwater and sediment runoff. In the centre is the Magdalena river, the largest river discharging directly into the Caribbean Sea. There are about two million people living on the Colombian coast, mostly in three port cities Barranquilla (large and industrial), and Cartagena and Santa Marta, which are dependent on tourism. There are significant human impacts in the coastal zone from sewage and chemical pollution, coastal construction, over-fishing, dynamite fishing, mangrove logging, and tourism. Sediments cover most of the shelf and there are few coral reefs near the mainland.

There are many well-developed reefs around offshore islands, including the Islas de San Bernardo and the Islas del Rosario on the shelf, and a few distant coral banks and atolls (the Colombian archipelago of San Andres and Providencia). San Andres is densely populated with about 50,000 people in 30 km2. It is an active commerce and tourism centre, and human impacts on the reefs include sewage pollution, dredging, coastal construction, over-fishing, tourism, oil pollution, and boat and anchor damage. There are few hurricanes this far south, but the San Andres archipelago suffers occasional impacts. Diadema died out in 1983, there were mass mortalities of gorgonians in the 1980s, and significant coral bleaching in the 1980s and in 1995.

The reefs of Punta Betin and Isla Morro Grande are impacted by pollution and sediment, and have fewer coral species (20) and less coral cover (19-26%), than the reefs of the Tayrona National Park, where few people live (a CARICOMP monitoring site with 26 coral species and 37-49% coral cover). Human impacts have probably affected coral reproduction, as colonies of Montastrea cavernosa had smaller gonads and lower fertility on the polluted reefs. Moreover, there are now fewer coral species and lower coral abundance at Punta Betin than in 1972 and 1975, which also suggests that pollution from Santa Marta Bay is affecting the reefs. In the last 10 years, there has also been extensive mortality of branching (Acropora palmata, A. cervicornis, Porites Porites) and foliose (Agaricia tenuifolia) corals in shallow waters at Tayrona, and considerable mortality of massive corals (Stephanocoenia intersepta, Montastrea annularis, Colpophyllia natans, Diploria spp.) in deeper water.

Extensive coral mortality has occurred around the coral reef islands near Cartagena: Islas de San Bernardo and Islas del Rosario. Acropora species, P. Porites and Ag. tenuifolia were severely affected, and some massive corals also declined. The reefs of San Andres were healthy from 1968 to 1973, but they were found to be in poor condition in 1992, with about 52% of the coral recently dead. The corals most affected were Acropora cervicornis (which has almost disappeared from around San Andres), Ac. palmata, Eusmilia fastigiata and C. natans. Since then, many algae have proliferated (mainly Dictyota, Halimeda, Lobophora and Padina).

Similar results were seen at the three unpopulated atolls of San Andres and Providencia (Courtown, Serrana, and Roncador) in 1994-1995. The amount of recently dead coral was between 43% and 56%, with the most affected species being branching (Acropora spp., Porites Porites) and massive corals (Montastrea annularis, Siderastrea siderea, C. natans, Diploria spp.). However, the mortality of the two Acropora species and Gorgonia spp. were much lower than on San Andres.

Environmental management was boosted by creation of the Ministry of the Environment in 1993, which administers national parks and reserves, including Tayrona and Islas del Rosario. Both have some local rangers to enforce regulations, but resources and infrastructure are still insufficient for effective control. Management plans and legislation are being prepared for these and other proposed protected areas (including Islas del San Bernardo, San Andres, and Providencia). Legislation and regulations are also being prepared for coastal area management and further protection of mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs. A nation-wide monitoring programme, on both Atlantic and Pacific coasts, was introduced in 1998.

Jamaica

The large island of Jamaica (235 km by 80 km) is in the centre of the Caribbean Sea. Cuba, 150 km north, moderates the effects of the northeast trade winds on the well-developed fringing reefs of the north coast, which grow on a very narrow shelf. Patchy reef formations on the south coast grow on a shallow shelf up to 20 km wide, but are punctuated by rivers and sediment slopes. Reefs and corals also grow on neighbouring banks at the Pedro Cays, 70 km south, and the Morant Cays, 50 km southwest. The Jamaican population has doubled in the last 30 years to about 2.5 million. There are many coastal communities, industries are concentrated on the southeast around Kingston, and there has been much recent tourism development on the north coast.

Jamaican reefs suffered little storm damage for more than 30 years, until they were severely impacted by Hurricane Allen in 1980. In the same year, there was some white-band disease in Acropora cervicornis, while in 1983, the abundant sea-urchin Diadema antillarum died off. These combined natural impacts marked the beginning of a major deterioration of Jamaican coral reefs. The reefs did not recover because of insidious, chronic human disturbance, notably over-fishing, and increased sediment and pollution runoff. Over-fishing on the narrow north-coast shelf was obvious in the 1960s, but the unusually high abundance of Diadema grazed down the algae and allowed the corals to dominate. When the Diadema died, algae grew over the reefs, smothered living corals, and prevented new corals settling. This algal growth was helped by nutrient pollution and the removal of grazing fish.

Soil erosion has been a major problem in Jamaica for 50 years, and sedimentation is damaging the reefs near river mouths. Nutrient pollution has increased as human populations grew, particularly in Kingston Harbour and near coastal communities, where nitrates percolate through porous limestone onto the reefs. Increased coral mortality occurs to the west of Kingston Harbour, showing the impact of a pollution plume. Jamaican corals also suffered mass bleaching in the winters of 1987, 1989 and 1990, with considerable mortality.

In the late 1970s, nine reefs on the north coast had coral cover averaging 52% at 10 m depth, but this declined to 3% in the 1990s, in parallel with an increase in fleshy macroalgae from 4% to 92%. Even in areas once dominated by massive corals at Discovery Bay, coral cover is only about 10%, and 14% in Montego Bay Marine Park. In shallow water, where sea-urchin numbers have increased, opportunistic corals have recruited and cover is increasing slightly. Some coral populations around the Port Royal Cays are in good health (coral cover up to 20%) with abundant Acropora cervicornis. For many years, the main law controlling coastal development was the Beach Control Act (1960), which licensed construction or drainage works near the shore. However, it was easy to ignore. Environmental management has been greatly strengthened by the Natural Resources Conservation Act (1994), and increased staffing of the Natural Resources Conservation Authority, in the Ministry of Environment and Housing. The Ocho Rios and Montego Bay Marine Parks were classic 'paper parks' with no staff or funding until 1989, when the Montego Bay Park was revitalised with USAID funding. In 1998, new land/sea coastal management areas have been created at Negril and the Portland Bight. Also in 1998, the potential for better integrated management of the coastal zone received a boost with the formation of a Council on Ocean and Coastal Zone Management, on which all major sectors are represented, and which reports directly to Cabinet. Government efforts in conservation and reef management have been increasingly supplemented by NGO activities. Local groups have formed all around the country, and several are doing valuable work in the coastal zone (Negril Coral Reef Preservation Society, Portland Environmental Protection Association, St. Ann Environmental Protection Association, and Caribbean Coastal Area Management Foundation). The Fisheries Improvement Programme, at the Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory, is helping artisanal fishermen to manage their own fishery resources. The CARICOMP monitoring site at Discovery Bay is soon to be joined by others at Portland Bight and Montego Bay. In addition, long-term monitoring for the effects of climate change is to be carried out for the Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change project.

Netherlands Antilles

Bonaire (38 km by 10 km) and Curacao (61 km by 14 km) are small oceanic islands about 70 km north of Venezuela. Each lies on a northwest to southeast axis, with the east coasts exposed to persistent trade winds. The shelf around each island is narrow, about 8-12 m deep for about 100 m, then the shelves slope steeply to a sandy terrace at 50-60 m, and then drop off. Coral reefs are well developed on the leeward coasts, but on the windward coasts, the shallow areas are dominated by crustose algae and Sargassum, and the corals grow best in deeper water.

Tourism is the most important industry in Bonaire, increasing at 10% per year for the last 10 years. The resident population is about 11,000 and growing, while there are about 60,000 visitors per year, of whom 26,000 are divers. Building along the coast is booming for tourism and housing, but sediment runoff is increasing from this construction, and there is no central sewage treatment. Fishing is mostly for pelagic fish, and is rare on the reefs.

Curacao Curacao has a population of 160,000, which is decreasing, while environmental pressures are increasing dramatically. The economy is based on oil refining, other industries, tourism, and off-shore banking. Massive coastal development is the biggest threat to the reefs, with raw sewage discharge, harbour pollution, and sedimentation from deforestation. Most fish caught are pelagics, with the reef fish catch estimated at 90-180 tonnes per year.

Bonaire and Curacao are on the margin of the hurricane and storm belt. But when hurricanes and storms do impact, their effects are marked. White-band disease caused similar massive damage to Acropora cervicornis in 1980-1981 as it did at Aruba. Diadema antillarum died off in 1983, with a parallel increase in large algae. There was mass bleaching of corals in 1987, 1990, and 1995.

Coral cover at four sites on Curacao and Bonaire decreased from 55-50% to 30-25% at 10 m and 20 m between 1973 and 1992, but was mostly unchanged at 30 m and 40 m depth. The decreases are probably due to increased growth of large algae and ascidians because of increased pollution.

The general condition of Bonaire reefs is good, and the impact of anchoring and sewage pollution is localised. Reef fish are abundant and biomass is high. The healthiest reefs in Curacao are upstream of the population centres, away from pollution by coastal development and industry. The reefs are also protected by rougher waters and poor access for the public, and pressure from fishing and diving is limited. Elsewhere, the condition of reefs and fish populations have degraded.

The Bonaire Island government introduced marine resource management in the 1970s, banning spearfishing and collection of coral. The Bonaire Marine Park (created in 1979) now extends all around the coast, and like other parks in the Netherlands Antilles, it is administered by a private foundation (STINAPA Netherlands Antilles). There are zonation and management plans, CARICOMP monitoring, permanent moorings, and a visitor centre. The Park is completely self-financed by diver fees of US$10 per year, grants, and donations.

The Reef Management Ordinance (1976) prohibits spearfishing and collection of coral in Curacao, and is still the only legislation. The Curacao Underwater Park (20 km from the eastern tip, Oostpunt, to the capital Willemstad) was opened in 1983, but has no legal status, and is ineffective due to a lack of funds. A management plan was produced in 1995, and legislation is being upgraded to start management in 1997. Meanwhile, a CARICOMP site has been operated since 1994.

Venezuela

Reef coral development is limited by freshwater and sediment runoff, and cool upwellings. Nearshore coral reefs are scarce, with small reefs at Moroccoy and Mochima. Better reefs occur around offshore oceanic islands, which include the Archipilago Los Roques. There has been much industrial, urban, and tourist development on the coast, with consequent sediment, human, and industrial pollution. There is intensive fishing on the fringing continental reefs and at Los Roques (lobster, conch, and fish). The island reefs are less exploited for tourism, but there is no control.

Hurricanes are relatively rare. There was mass mortality of Diadema in 1983, and large-scale bleaching of corals in 1987, and much more in 1995-1996. Some reefs are currently affected by terrestrial runoff. Recently, there has been mass mortality of marine organisms on the Moroccoy National Park reefs, which eliminated almost all massive coral species. Previously, the cover by massive species alone had been relatively high, at 36%.

Conservation is the responsibility of MARNR; INPARQUES manages protected areas and the national parks at Los Roques, Mochima and Moroccoy. There are many laws, regulations and management plans, such as declaring the coastal strip 80 m wide, including the mangroves, as a protected area, but there are insufficient boats, trained personnel, and funds, and the laws are not fully implemented. The navy controls many oceanic islands, restricting tourism and fishing. Some NGOs support reef research programs, for example ECONATURA gives grants for small projects in protected areas, and trains personnel to monitor physical and chemical variables in marine parks. FUDENA maintains a marine turtle conservation programme. CARICOMP sites are located at Moroccoy and Margarita Islands.

Recent management activities

Two significant resource management trends can be seen in the region. First, there is a progression from protecting species, to protecting habitats, then to protecting the wider ecosystem and, ultimately, nation-wide environmental management. No countries have reached that goal, however, most have established marine protected areas (MPAs), mostly as national parks. Most receive too little funding to be fully effective, but they play a valuable role in attracting public and government attention to the importance of natural resources. They stimulate Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) and become valuable centres for learning, and developing appropriate measures, although mostly on a small scale. Integrated management is still hampered by the multiple agencies involved, but some countries (e.g. Cayman) have created more unified structures for environmental decision-making by restructuring departments and creating consultative committees (as in Jamaica).

The small island states of Bonaire and Cayman depend heavily on marine resources and have established more effective conservation mechanisms than the nearby islands of Curacao and Jamaica, where there are many more competing interests. Cayman recently declared a moratorium on development, while Bonaire and other 'island paradises' have not yet established carrying limits.

The second trend is a move from 'top-down' control by government, to 'bottom-up' participation by local resource users and development of co-management. Enforcement of environmental laws requires political will, trained staff and money. Most natural resource agencies are understaffed, and rangers either do not enforce environmental laws, or impose minimal fines. Environmental management by governments is expensive and inefficient; whereas management by an informed and involved population is cheaper and more likely to succeed. As people become aware of environmental issues, politicians follow. In the last 10 years, environmental managers and funding agencies have increased the involvement of all 'stakeholders' in environmental planning and regulation. There has been much talk, and some action, towards co-management in the region, and the participation of NGOs in coastal management has increased. They are contributing to reef monitoring in some cases in association with CARICOMP, which is represented in five of the six countries. In addition, assessments were made for Reef Check in 1997, in Cayman and Bonaire.

URL http://www.aims.gov.au

http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/coral-bleaching/scr1998/scr-00.html

Status of coral reefs of the world: 1998

Status of coral reefs of Central America: Pacific and Caribbean coasts

Jorge Cortés and Marea E Hatziolos

Abstract

Reefs on the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of Central America are remarkably different. The Pacific coast reefs are small with very low diversity and are under very high pressure from natural impacts and increasing human activities. The reefs have been heavily damaged in the past by crown-of-thorns starfish predation and massive bleaching during El Niño years, and now by large amounts of sediment runoff from poor land-use practices. They are also being continually stressed by cold upwellings and damage from bioeroding animals that burrow into coral skeletons and scrape off newly settled corals. These poor coral growth conditions also result in a low capacity to recover from damage. There has been little activity to conserve them, and pressure is not high for protection, except for a few reefs well offshore.

The eastern coast of Central America has some of the best reefs in the Caribbean. Reefs off Belize, and also those well offshore of countries to the south, have much higher biodiversity and are generally in good to excellent condition; corals are healthy and some reefs have large fish populations. These reefs have been impacted by coral bleaching, including the current episode, and by the death of the long-spined sea-urchin. But they have generally recovered rapidly. They are now being impacted by increased sediment and nutrient runoff from poor land-use practices, and by increasing fishing pressure, often using illegal means. This is particularly clear in reefs off Panama where significant degradation has been measured. There are a number of marine protected areas (MPAs), some well managed but others existing only on paper. Currently there is a major regional project in preparation, under the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef Initiative (MBRI), which aims to increase the capacity for conservation and sustainable use of coral reefs along the northeastern coast of Mesoamerica, and to increase monitoring and assessment of the health of coral reef ecosystems.

Introduction

The reefs of the two coasts of Central America are radically different: those on the Pacific side are generally small, have very low coral species diversity, having formed along the margins of a steep and narrow continental shelf, and are subject to the influences of upwelling and El Niño. In contrast, reefs on the eastern side have some of the highest coral diversity in the Caribbean, and have formed extensive coral reefs along shallow underwater banks. These include the barrier reef running parallel to the coast of Belize, one of the longest in the world. The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System covers a distance of nearly 1000 km, originating in the northern Yucatan Peninsula in Quintana Roo (Mexico), and extending as far south as the Bay Islands off the north coast of Honduras. Further south, fringing reefs and the many offshore coral cays from Nicaragua to the San Blas Islands of Panama form a second cluster of reefs with associated mangroves and seagrass beds. Research to date has focused on the ecology and geology of the reefs of Panama and Belize. Only recently have reports of degradation in Mesoamerican reefs begun to focus attention on the need for conservation and management of these systems, and hence a better understanding of their structure and function within a larger regional context.

The Caribbean reefs of Mesoamerica are ecologically complex and subject to a variety of natural and increasing anthropogenic stresses. Coral bleaching was a major event in 1983, causing massive mortality of corals. Hurricanes are a major natural disturbance, periodically destroying vast areas of reefs and clearing the way for new settlement and colonization, particularly in northern parts (as occurred recently with Hurricane Mitch). The long-spined sea-urchin Diadema antillarum played a major role on these reefs, as in the rest of the Caribbean, in controlling the growth of macroalgae. When there was a mass die-off in 1983, algal growth exploded and smothered large areas of coral reefs in most countries, except in Belize where near-normal populations of grazing fish remained. In most other areas, fish populations were reduced through the use of fine mesh fish traps, nets and spearfishing. The most recent bleaching event associated with the 1997-1998 El Niño has had marked effects in the western Caribbean, as elsewhere. The overall mortality from this event is still being assessed, but individual accounts indicate that it is extensive. Recovery rates are likely to be affected by cumulative stress from other anthropogenic sources. These include destructive fishing practices, including inappropriate gear, the use of spear guns, and violation of closed seasons and exploitation of spawning aggregations of reef fish, and indirect sources such as pollution and sedimentation.

Deforestation and inappropriate land use in watersheds draining to the Caribbean have resulted in significant erosion and sediment loads affecting reefs. Non-point source pollution from pesticides and agricultural runoff, as well as wastewater from growing municipal and industrial development along the coast, are degrading coastal water quality and contributing to eutrophication. Coastal tourism and port expansion have resulted in habitat loss and degradation through conversion of mangroves, dredging of seagrass beds, and siltation of reefs. These interactive and cumulative effects are likely to play an increasing role in the dynamics of reef community structure and their resilience to natural disturbance. Reefs on the Pacific coast are subject to frequent bouts of cold upwelling water, which favour the growth of macroalgae and limit the growth of corals. By contrast, during El Niño years, seawater temperatures can rise to over 30oC and stay high for weeks, resulting in coral bleaching. Coral diversity is very low because these reefs are isolated from the Pacific centres of high diversity by enormous distances, and from the Caribbean side by land that closed the connection between the two seas 3.5 million years ago. The reefs are usually close to land and are heavily impacted by large amounts of sediment runoff because of heavy rainfall. There is also intense bioerosion by burrowing sea-urchins, boring molluscs, and other animals. This erosion is so intense that most of the reefs are decreasing in coral rock content, not increasing like most other reefs in the world. The crown-of-thorns starfish are persistent predators on these reefs and have caused serious damage in the past.

The combination of stresses on Pacific reefs means that there are very slow rates of recovery following major stress. After the large El Niño bleaching in 1983, it has been estimated that recovery of these reefs may take between 100 and 200 years. Coral reefs that are stressed by either cold upwellings or pollution could take longer to recover.

Belize

The longest barrier reef in the Caribbean runs from Belize's northern border with Mexico, north of Ambergris Caye, down to Honduras, a distance of some 250 km. Virtually all types of reefs are found, from shallow platform reefs in the lagoon to deep plunging barrier reefs on the edge of the shelf. A series of oceanic atolls are found outside the reef; among these are Turneffe, and two of the best examples of oceanic atolls in the Caribbean, Lighthouse and Glover's Reef. These reefs are probably the best reefs in the Caribbean, as they are in excellent health, have a high diversity of corals, and large fish populations. The major natural impacts are hurricanes, which strike every six years on average, the most severe being Hattie (1961) and Greta (1978), which damaged corals and sent 2 m storm surges over some islands. The recent coral bleaching in late 1998 appears to be particularly severe, with large areas of the reefs showing extensive bleaching of almost all species, and water temperatures rising to 32oC and as high as 38oC in protected shallow areas. Most reefs are relatively remote from the mainland. A lagoon, between 10 km and 40 km wide, separates the barrier reefs from the mainland and protects them from sediment runoff and pollution. In addition, Belize has one of the lowest population densities in the Caribbean and most of the tropical and mangrove forests are intact. Fishing pressure is slight to moderate, however there is increasing pressure from fishers coming up from countries to the south. When the Diadema died off in 1983, there were no major increases in macroalgal growth due to a healthy population of herbivore fish, and so there were few impacts on the corals. The offshore atolls are remote from land influences, however they appear to have reasonably high natural levels of water nutrients and are experiencing increasing fishing pressure. The excellent status of reefs in Belize is attracting increasing numbers of dive tourists, many of whom explore the reefs aboard small ships. The government is active in promoting coastal conservation and is implementing a phased integrated coastal management program. Belize also signed the Tulum Declaration along with its neighbors: Mexico, Honduras, and Guatemala. These four countries are committed to joint management and conservation of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS), having acknowledged the need for a coordinated plan of action. A regional project to protect the reefs through better monitoring and conservation techniques is now being prepared with Global Environment Facility and World Bank support, and standards and protocols for sustainable use are being introduced. The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef Initiative (MBRI) is part of a larger program to preserve and expand a biological corridor of natural habitats, connecting populations of flora and fauna along the entire Mesoamerican isthmus, from Mexico to Panama.

Bay Islands reefs OK? May 2000

Tom Bright recently stated that the rumors of the death of Belize reefs may have been exaggerated and opined that the same might be true of the Bay Islands of Honduras. I have been monitoring a section of reef on the island of Roatan for the past 10+ years. This section was selected based on the assumption of high human impact because of increasing sediment loading due to on-shore construction near the site.

My last visit to this reef was in April of this year and, while I do not have a complete analysis of the data, there has been no apparent degradation of the reef in general nor any significant coral mortality over the past 10 years, and certainly nothing in the last 2 years.

I am monitoring in a single location, but my superficial observations over the past 15 years indicate the reefs around Roatan are holding up well.

If anyone has other observations on Roatan or the other Bay Islands, I would like to hear from them.

John

John R. Ware, PhD * President * SeaServices, Inc. * 19572 Club House Road * Montgomery Village, MD, 20886 *

Costa Rica

Most of the Caribbean coastline consists of sandy beaches with occasional rocky headlands where reef corals grow. There are reefs on offshore carbonate banks in the north, and small areas of fringing and patch reefs down to the Panamanian border. These reefs are exposed to strong onshore winds and waves that limit growth in shallow water. There are also large sediment flows that restrict reef growth, and these sediment flows have increased in the last 20 years. The reefs were extensively damaged by major bleaching in 1983, and algal proliferation from the Diadema die-off, also in 1983. Reefs around the port of Limon have been damaged by sewage, industrial and petroleum pollution. Recent increases in sediment flow have caused considerable damage to coral cover on the large fringing reefs of the Parque Nacional Cahuita (from an average of 40% in the early 1980s to around 11% now). Likewise there has been a major drop in coral cover (now less than 20%) in Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Gandoca-Manzanillo, but here corals are mostly healthy. Other problems for the reefs are coral and sand mining, and dumping of solid wastes. Intensive citrus and banana farming have resulted in pollution from pesticides, fertilizers, and sediment. Both MPAs have had a massive increase in tourist numbers (a three-fold increase between 1981 and 1991).

On the Pacific coast, the fringing reef of Punta Isolotes, Golfo Dulce (near the border of Panama) has been massively degraded by sedimentation, such that coral cover is down to 2%. This was a well-developed reef with a high cover of Porites and Pocillopora corals, but now the reef is virtually extinguished. The best reefs are those of Culebra Bay in the north. These are also under increasing pressure from land runoff and fishing activities, including collection of ornamental fishes and corals. Attempts at protecting these reefs are meeting with resistance from other stakeholders.

Management of Costa Rican reefs has mostly focused on protected area management rather than control of land-based sources of pollution, sedimentation, and other offsite impacts that have devastating effects downstream.

El Salvador

There are a few small reefs at Los Cobanos, which are heavily impacted by land stresses: sediment pollution, and bioerosion. Little is known of these reefs.

Guatemala

The Caribbean coastline is very short and heavily influenced by sediment-laden rivers, thus, there is virtually no coral reef growth near the coast. The Pacific coast is also influenced by alluvial conditions and dominated by mangroves, with negligible coral reef formation.

Honduras

There are three main reef groups: nearshore fringing reefs; extensive offshore fringing reefs around the Bay Islands (Utila, Roatan, and Guanaja ), Cayos Cochinos and Islas del Cigne in the north central region; and the offshore fringing and patch reefs of the Caya de la Mosquitia (Mosquito Cayes). The Bay Islands have a well-developed structure and high coral diversity, with 44 species known from these islands. A complete inventory of marine biodiversity of the Bay Islands will be undertaken as part of a five-year Natural Resources Management Project for the Bay Islands, supported by the Inter-American Development Bank and the Government of Honduras. A biodiversity monitoring and geographic information system will also be established under the project. This type of monitoring will be critical in assessing the status of coral reefs in this region following the significant bleaching and coral mortality experienced in these otherwise healthy reefs after the El Niño event of summer 1998. This was followed soon after by the devastating Category IV Hurricane Mitch, which struck the coast of Honduras with 155 mph winds in late October. Such natural disturbances, coupled with the prospects for rapidly increasing tourism and migration from the mainland to the Bay Islands, underscores the vulnerability of these reefs and the need for pro-active management. A new marine reserve for the waters around the Bay Islands is under preparation, which will limit fishing and regulate other marine activities. Other plans include control of land-based sources of stress through better land-use planning and environmental management. Elsewhere, for example along the Mosquito Cayes, fishing pressure is more intense and few fish on inshore reefs reach reproductive size. As a consequence, there is significant growth of algae that smothers corals and impedes their growth in areas with high nutrient loads.

As a participant in the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System Initiative, Honduras will be part of a regional program involving neighboring Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico in monitoring and assessment of coral reef health. Biophysical and socioeconomic information will be processed and disseminated around the region to help build a picture of ecosystem health at the local, national, and regional levels.

There are no reefs on the short Pacific coast of Honduras, which is part of the Gulf of Fonseca, a highly productive zone of upwelling and continental runoff.

Nicaragua

There is little information on reefs off both coasts of Nicaragua, but on the east coast there is the largest hard carbonate bank in the Caribbean. On it there are patch and island coral reefs but these are largely unknown. There are four groups: Moskitos Cays; Man-of-War Cays; Cayos de Perlas; and Great and Little Corn Islands. Human occupation of these last islands is resulting in degradation from sewage pollution and over-fishing. There are no reefs off the mainland coast because of the large amounts of sediment runoff. No reefs are reported from the Pacific coast.

Panama

Panama is protected from hurricanes and cyclones because it is south of the path of most tropical storms. There is, however, frequent upwelling on the Pacific coast, which limits coral reef growth. Both coasts have experienced coral bleaching in association with El Niño events, the most severe in 1983. The most recent El Niño episode (1998) resulted in only moderate coral bleaching on both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts. There are three large areas of reefs on the Caribbean side: Bocas del Toro; Region Central from Colon to Portobelo; and the several hundred islands of San Blas. A wide range of reefs occur at Bocas del Toro, ranging from those near the shore and mangroves that are subject to heavy sediment influence, to offshore patch reefs growing down to 15 m in pristine clean water. Exposure to large waves limits coral growth in shallow water to hardy, stunted corals. Behind these are extensive areas of seagrasses, and mangroves with patch reefs, which have low coral cover (less than 20%) because of large sediment flows and high algal overgrowth. Fishing pressure is particularly high, and large fish, lobster, and conch are rare.

The reefs of the Central Region were studied intensively following a major oil spill in 1987. There are mostly shallow fringing reefs in this area in less than 6 m of water, with some extending to depths of 12 m. The oil spill at Bahia Las Minas decreased coral cover and diversity, mainly because the oil was trapped in the mangroves, and continually leached out onto the shallow reefs over many months.

In the 1970s, the San Blas reefs were healthy, with active growth extending down to 30 m and coral cover around 30-55%. There were extensive stands of Porites Porites and elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) in shallow water, with deeper zones dominated by Agaricia agaricites. Recent studies have shown that more than half of these corals have been lost (now 12-26% cover), either covered in sediment, broken into rubble or, like the Porites, mined for calcium carbonate. These losses are attributed to a combination of many causes including: the die-off of Diadema, which has encouraged algal overgrowth; coral bleaching; increased sediment and nutrient loads from limited agriculture; unplanned coastal development; and coral mining. Algal cover has doubled since the mid-1980s to about 60% on many reefs. The greatest damage has occurred around the 41 inhabited islands near shore with direct disposal of all effluents onto the reefs, and expansion of the islands by infilling the seagrass beds. Fishing pressure, particularly by spearfishing and seine nets, is intense, and local regulations for sustainable management of the resources are ignored. Grouper, lobster, and turtles are exported and their populations are now very low. Coral bleaching in 1983 killed many corals down to 20 m, particularly the dominant coral Agaricia agaricites, whereas the bleaching in 1995 had little impact.

Pacific reefs are mostly small and have low coral diversity with a maximum of 23 coral species, and growth is limited by cold upwellings that promote massive algal blooms and assist large algal growth. Coral growth in the Gulf of Panama occurs almost exclusively as fringing reefs off the islands of Iguana and Pearl. To the north, in the Gulf of Chiriqui, there are reefs both on the mainland and around offshore islands away from oceanic waves. The Coiba Island reef is probably the second largest in the eastern Pacific and covers 160 ha. These reefs were extensively damaged during the 1983 El Niño bleaching event, and have still not recovered.

One coral reef area on the Pacific coast, Coiba, is within a MPA. There has been active cooperation between the local inhabitants of the San Blas Islands, the Kuna Indians, the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, and the Panamanian Government to establish the Kuna Biosphere Reserve.

Overall status of reef management

Perceptions of the need for greater reef management have increased with the recognition of the economic value of reefs for tourism and fisheries. This recognition has meant strong development of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Belize and Costa Rica, while Honduras, and to a lesser extent Panama, lag behind. Conservation has been aided by the peace processes between neighbouring countries, and Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico are collaborating in a joint initiative for the conservation and sustainable use of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System with the assistance of the GEF, the World Bank, and a variety of donors working at the national and regional levels.

These countries have been participating in reef productivity monitoring through CARICOMP (Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program), and research on reefs has been strong in Belize (largely with collaboration from British institutions), and Panama (through collaboration with the Smithsonian Institution of the USA). A more comprehensive ecosystem monitoring and environmental information systems effort will be mounted at the sub-regional level for countries participating in the MBRI.

There are more than 20 MPAs designated along the Caribbean coasts of these six countries, however only a small fraction have effective management plans and staff to assist in conservation. A greater proportion of the reefs of the Western Caribbean will be under protection and active management as part of ongoing national and sub-regional efforts in Mexico, Belize, and Honduras to expand the system of marine protected areas to cover the rich biodiversity and biogeography of the region. Similar efforts will need to be mounted in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama to ensure that such coverage is truly representative of the region as a whole.

Coral reefs on the Pacific side are poorly developed and generally in poor condition, thus there is little appreciation of these reefs for management. These reefs are heavily stressed by natural and human stresses and recover very slowly from damage. Only two MPAs have been notified: one by Costa Rica on the offshore islands Isla del Coco and another, Coiba Island, off the Gulf of Panama coast.

Conclusions

The region contains a mixture of very good coral reefs, such as those off Belize, but the majority are coming under increasing stress from human activities, combined with the normal natural stresses, resulting in reduced resilience and many degraded reefs. This is particularly the case on the Pacific coast, but these reefs were always marginal and have very low capacity to recover. Current management capacity is generally poor, but there are encouraging signs of greater commitment to conserve the valuable Caribbean reefs in particular.

Jorge Cortés is from the Centro de Investigacion y Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia and the Universidad de Costa Rica in San Pedro, and Marea Hatziolos is senior coastal and marine resources management specialist at the World Bank in Washington, D.C., with projects in Central America.

URL http://www.aims.gov.au

Hurricanes, Coral Reefs and Rainforests

Hurricanes, Coral Reefs and Rainforests: Resistance, Ruin and Recovery in the Caribbean ---

This is the title of an article in the March, 2000 (Volume 29, Number 2), edition of AMBIO (pp 106-114) by ARIEL E. LUGO of the USDA International Institute for Tropical Forestry, CAROLINE S. ROGERS of the US Virgin Islands National Park in St. John, and SCOTT W. NIXON.

The Abstract:

"The coexistence of hurricanes, coral reefs, and rainforests in the Caribbean demonstrates that highly structured ecosystems with great diversity can flourish in spite of recurring exposure to intense destructive energy. Coral reefs develop in response to wave energy and resist hurricanes largely by virtue of their structural strength. Limited fetch also protects some reefs from fully developed hurricane waves. While storms may produce dramatic local reef damage, they appear to have little impact on the ability of coral reefs to provide food or habitat for fish and other animals. Rainforests experience an enormous increase in wind energy during hurricanes with dramatic structural changes in vegetation. The resulting changes in forest microclimate are larger than those on reefs and the loss of fruit, leaves, cover, and microclimate has a great impact on animal populations. Recovery of many aspects of rainforest structure and function is rapid, thought there may be long-term changes in species composition. While resistance and repair have maintained reefs and rainforests in the past, human impacts may threaten their ability to survive.

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Marine Protected Areas

Science News; Washington; Apr 28, 2001; Janet Raloff;

Abstract: One would think that the United States' 13 national marine sanctuaries--more than 18,000 square nautical miles of underwater real estate along US coasts--should be safe havens for their denizens, but all the sanctuaries allow fishing and most also permit recreational boating, mining and other potentially disruptive activities. Now that research suggests safe havens appear to boost populations of fish outside their borders, even some fishing-boat captains support the need for more refuges. Full Text: Copyright Science Service, Incorporated Apr 28, 2001[Headnote] Efforts are under way to greatly expand coastal no-fishing zones

Sanctuary. One definition, according to Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, is "a refuge for wildlife where predators are controlled and hunting is illegal."

You'd think, therefore, that the United States' 13 national marine sanctuaries-- more than 18,000 square nautical miles of underwater real estate along U.S. coasts-- should be safe havens for their denizens. In fact, most are anything but.

All the sanctuaries allow fishing. Most also permit recreational boating, mining of some resources, and a host of other potentially disruptive activities.

That's why calling these regions sanctuaries "is a crock," argues John C. Ogden, director of the Florida Institute of Oceanography in St. Petersburg. The misnomer confuses the public about how well sensitive ecosystems and beleaguered fish are being protected, he contends.

Ogden's assertions are borne out by a national survey commissioned by SeaWeb, a marine-environment advocacy group in Washington, D.C. Of 1,000 U.S. adults polled in February, 31 percent guessed that more than one-fifth of U.S. coastal waters are fully protected from fishing and other activities, notes Vikki Spruill, the group's executive director.

In fact, Ogden notes, only in pockets of some sanctuaries does the federal government prohibit fishing and certain other exploitative activities, such as ship salvaging. He estimates that perhaps only 125 square nautical miles of U.S. marine waters are such "no-take" refuges. The newest and biggest is the month-old 74-square-nautical-mile Tortugas refuge within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary.

Jane Lubchenco of Oregon State University in Corvallis notes that the U.S. tally leaves out many additional no-take areas protected by state or local authorities. Even including these, however, the total would still come to less than 0.01 percent of U.S. coastal waters, she says.

The nation's territorial waters extend 200 nautical miles out from all coasts, encompassing a whopping 3.36 million square nautical miles. This so-called Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is an area considerably larger than the nation's land mass, notes Elliott A. Norse, president of the Marine Conservation Biology Institute in Redmond, Wash.

At a minimum, Norse argues, 20 percent of waters within the EEZ-or some 660,000 square nautical miles-should be set aside within the next 15 years as no-- take refuges. Such action is necessary to allow recovery of heavily overfished stocks (SN: 2/7/96, p. 367) and to preserve seafloor communities or rebuild ones that have been wiped out by trawling (SN: 12/19&26/98, p. 388).

Some sensitive old-growth habitats may need a century to mature, Lubchenco says. She would like to see 35 to 50 percent of the EEZ set aside.

Yet U.S. industries that exploit the ocean's resources, especially its fish, have fought virtually every effort to create new refuges. These actions may have been shortsighted, new analyses indicate, because safe havens appear to boost populations of fish outside their borders.

At an American Association for the Advancement of Science symposium in San Francisco in February, Lubchenco and others reported huge benefits to areas in and around no-take refuges. Marine biologists refer to such refuges as marine reserves.

"This was really the first time that the scientific community assessed in depth what the science is telling us about marine reserves," says Roger Griffis of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Washington, D.C. The-new findings "show [reserves] have powerful impacts," he says.

The new analyses appear so compelling, both he and Lubchenco note, that the need for more refuges is at last starting to win grudging support-even among some fishing-boat captains.

The United States created its marine-- sanctuaries program in 1972, when oil spills and treasure plundering seemed to pose the greatest threat to sea resources. Sanctuaries therefore prohibited oil drilling and salvaging but little else.

Since then, overfishing has emerged as a far bigger threat than oil pollution. Commercial ships have compensated for dwindling fish stocks by spending more time at work. As prized stocks such as cod and haddock crashed in coastal areas, some to the brink of extinction, fleets began targeting species previously discarded as junk, such as dogfish and angler fish.

Biologists have petitioned governments to put the critical spawning grounds and nurseries of valued species off limits. The fishing industry has countered that this could bankrupt many of its members. [Photograph] Caption: Corals and other slow-growing seafloor inhabitants are especially vulnerable to human impacts, from pollution to run-ins with boats and their gear [Photograph] Caption: The goal of reserves is to protect all marine life, even that not economically exploitable, such as this starfish and sea slug.

In hopes of averting stalemate, Lubchenco and several colleagues in 1998 recruited a group of experts to launch a new program at the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis (NCEAS) in Santa Barbara, Calif. During the past 30 months, the group has pored over almost 100 studies of marine reserves, looking for specifics on how well their no-take policies protect ecosystems or let fish stocks rebuild.

By pooling data from many small studies around the world, the scientists were able to tease out some strong generalizations. They found, for instance, that reserves generate benefits quickly.

Densities of surveyed species were, on average, twice as high inside reserves as outside, Robert Warner of the University of California, Santa Barbara reported at the San Francisco meeting. The biomass, or weight of organisms within a reserve, was typically three times that found in an equal-size fished area outside the reserve. Moreover, animals were on average 30 percent bigger inside reserves and the overall species diversity about 20 percent higher, compared with populations outside reserve boundaries.

Some reserves date back to the mid1970s. Warner's team discovered that substantial benefits typically show up within just 3 years of a reserve being established and endure for decades. "All reserves, large and small, showed this response," he noted.

These data also suggest that a system of small reserves may achieve benefits equal to or greater than a single, large one, Warner says.

The necessary size for a reserve to flourish and to replenish the area around it depends on the flora and fauna present. Until recently, biologists assumed that reserves have to be fairly large to protect the many animal species that flow in and out with the currents and tides.

However, the NCEAS analyses, which are all due to be published this fall as a special issue of ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, uncovered another surprise: Many species tend to be home bodies.

The young of most marine animals spend some of their development time as minute larvae-plank-ton that drift with ocean currents. Depending on the species, this planktonic stage can last anywhere from a few hours to months. The distance larvae float during this time can also vary dramatically-from 3 feet to 550 nautical miles, notes Louis W Botsford of the University of California, Davis.

In animals with a long planktonic period, larvae hatched in a reserve risk floating beyond their protected home. To ensure that enough of any species with a long larval stage remains in its refuge-creating a selfsustaining populations reserve's diameter should be at least as great as the distance that larvae float.

However, where a reserve's primary goal is to breed abundant fish populations that will migrate beyond the reserve's boundaries, that diameter shouldn't be much bigger than this critical size. A series of small reserves would provide a greater total border zone to fishers than one large no-take zone.

Though initial data on planktonic periods suggested that most reserves might need to be hundreds or thousands of kilometers in diameter, the NCEAS analyses may now explain why even many tiny no-take zones seem to build large fish stocks: Their plankton don't wander far.

For instance, Indonesia's manta shrimp should be able to travel thousands of kilometers per generation, given that the animal's larvae drift for about 4 weeks in currents flowing at up to 1 meter per second. At the San Francisco meeting, Stephen R. Palumbi of Harvard University reported, however, that most of the shrimp move only 10 to 30 nautical miles in a single generation. He and his colleagues tracked the movement of eight major populations of the animals by measuring the spread of genes among them.

"And this is not an isolated example," Palumbi says. He notes that various other marine species in Australia and along the northeast U.S. coast have been spreading at rates representing only a small raction of what their planktonic periods suggest should be likely.

Indeed, Palumbi and others now advocate the development of national networks of no-take zones-in effect, archipelagos of underwater safe havens. The NCEAS scientists' computer modeling suggests that networks of irregularly sized and spaced reserves could sustain a wide variety of species, including animals that begin life as long-distance drifters.

However, cautions Steven D. Gaines, director of the Marine Science Institute at the University of California, Santa Barbara, redundancy will be needed within such networks to offset the effects of occasional catastrophes, such as hurricanes, oil spills, and algal blooms. His analysis suggests that planners should increase the area to be preserved by 10 to 100 percent to account for catastrophes, depending on their historical frequency in a region.

To date, wherever environmental activists and researchers have proposed reserves, fishers have resisted them-and "almost always vigorously," says Callum M. Roberts of York University in England. However, he adds, evidence "from around the world indicates that fishers have nothing to fear."

By way of example, he points to data that he collected at the Soufriere Marine Management Area, a coral-reef park off the Caribbean island of St. Lucia.

Daily patrols by park staff have enforced a fishing prohibition in four no-- take zones since 1995. Within 3 years, he reports, the density of commercially important fish stocks inside the protected areas swelled and spilled over to areas just outside the park.

The commercial stocks doubled within the area outside the reserves. "Fishers now agree they are better off with the [reserves] than without," he says.

To probe the long-term impacts of no-- take refuges, biologists have been monitoring one of the world's first: New Zealand's 1.5-square-nautical-mile Cape RodneyOkakari Point Reserve off Auckland. Established in 1975, its density of prized fish like snapper (Pagrus auratus) is now 40 times higher inside the reserve than in similar fished areas, Roberts notes. The biomass of spiny lobsters in the reserve has also in creased phenomenally-by 5 to 11 percent annually.

Roberts says people quickly learned the advantage of fishing just outside the border of this reserve, and boats line up there daily.

This reserve's impressive benefits have "paved the way for a national network of marine reserves that is now being built in New Zealand," Roberts observes. Heather Leslie at Oregon State, who has been studying this network, says that as of last September, New Zealand already had 16 fully protected reserves. Together, they encompass some 2,900 square nautical miles, or nearly 0.2 percent of that country's territorial waters.

[[Most protected marine areas include some land and adjacent coastal waters, as here at California's San Miguel Island.]]

U.S. planners are now investigating how best to begin building such networks of reserves here.

For instance, Leslie has adapted an experimental computer program to combine topographic maps of a region with plots of such features as spawning grounds, fish habitat, fisheries, coral reefs, and fragile seafloor biota. The program can generate a host of possible reserve-network configurations for analysis by local stakeholders-from biologists and oceanographers to scuba divers and squid-fishing fleets.

Leslie recently used the program to suggest hundreds of possible networks of reserves that the government might establish within the 1,252-square-nautical-- mile Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary off California. Currently, only one 0.03-square-nautical-mile reserve exists there.

A local stakeholders group commissioned Leslie and other scientific and economic advisors to suggest how much new territory should be designated no-- take. The scientists recently recommended that from 30 to 50 percent of the sanctuary should be in reserves. Now, the stakeholders are studying maps of possible set-asides totaling between 8 and 50 percent of the sanctuary.

Some fishers have begun saying that the maps of proposed reserves have allayed some of their initial fears of a Channel Islands refuge network, observes Lubchenco. The experimental computer program, she argues, "is proving a powerful tool."

under an executive order issued last May-which remains in force under President Bush-President Clinton authorized federal agencies "to strengthen the management, protection, and conservation of existing marine protested areas (MPAs) and establish new or expanded MPAs." These sites include marine sanctuaries and all other fully or partially protected parcels of underwater real estate.

MPAs can range from tidal beaches that are off-limits to visitors during sea turtle nesting periods to areas that ban fishing that disturbs the seafloor. Some MPAs prohibit disturbance of coral or forbid the anchoring of ships; others bar the extraction of sand. One, in Hawaii, outlaws any activities that might disturb young humpback whales.

No existing catalog identifies all U.S. MPAs, let alone the subset that has been granted reserve status, Griffis notes. His office is developing such a registry and will post it on a Web site for use by individuals and government agencies seeking to nominate new MPAs.

Griffis' goal is to have by year's end a list of all MPAs, cross-indexed by location, ecosystem, and level of protection. Knowing what's already out there is an essential first step to building coordinated networks of marine reserves, he says.

However, Lubchenco points out, even reserves can't prevent toxic or nutrient pollution, alien-species invasions, or climate change. Overfishing of top predators in areas outside reserves also can affect populations within no-take areas. That's why, she warns, although "networks of marine reserves may be the single most useful tool at our disposal," they will never, by themselves, be sufficient to protect the increasingly imperiled seas.

Many fish, such as these fusiliers, depend on complex seabed structures for safety and prey.

Volume: 159 Issue: 17 Start Page: 264-266 ISSN: 00368423 Subject Terms: Wildlife conservation Marine biology Wildlife sanctuaries Animal populations Geographic Names: United States US

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction or distribution is prohibited without permission.

Potter at Island Resources <bpotter@...> bpotter@irf.org

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